By Qishen Peng
The Yuanming Yuan, also known as the Old Summer Palace, was a vast imperial garden complex in Beijing, renowned for its exquisite architecture and cultural treasures. In October 1860, during the Second Opium War, French and British troops destroyed the Yuanming Yuan to punish China for its delay in settling the conflict. They set fire to wooden buildings, demolished stone structures, and looted as much as they could carry. Captain Charles Gordon, later seen as the Imperial hero in Sudan, described the scene as follows: “You can scarcely imagine the beauty and magnificence of the places we burnt. It made one’s heart sore to hear” (Kraus 2009). The looted treasures from the Yuanming Yuan carry deep symbolic weight for the whole nation. The European appropriation of the emperor’s wealth and the destruction of his palaces marked a low point in Sino-Western relations, forcing China to confront its defeat and humiliation. The plundering of the emperor’s personal treasures added to the insult, further undermining China’s sovereignty and turning the repatriation of these artifacts into a politically charged issue beyond their aesthetic value (Kraus 2009). This event symbolized China’s loss of sovereignty, laying the foundation for national humiliation.
This national humiliation also fueled the rise of Chinese nationalism. China began to emphasize national pride through the memory of its historical shame. The National humiliation refers to the series of aggressive actions, such as invasions, looting, territorial occupations, and unjust demands, imposed on China by foreign imperial powers (including Western countries and Japan) during what is called the “Century of Humiliation,” which roughly spanned the time period from the First Opium War in 1839 to the end of World War II in 1945. This humiliation is viewed as a shared experience among all Chinese people. Although the focus and interpretation of this narrative have shifted over time, national humiliation has remained a key theme in Chinese education (Fotopoulos 2015). The looting and burning of the Yuanming Yuan in 1860 is often cited as a prime example of this national shame. Reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao expressed profound shame when they saw the looted objects displayed in foreign museums (Hevia 1994 and 2003). This connection between the Yuanming Yuan and national humiliation remains powerful even today (Fotopoulos 2015).
The Patriotic Education Campaign of Yuanmingyuan emphasizes the historical destruction of the Old Summer Palace by foreign forces in 1860, using it as a symbol of national humiliation to foster patriotism and collective memory in China. At the same time, it contrasted this history with the prosperity experienced under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The Yuanming Yuan’s ruins, still standing as a symbol of China’s past suffering, are portrayed as a reminder of a darker time in China’s history (Weatherley 2013). As China moved from a class-based nationalism to a more cultural nationalism, the Yuanming Yuan’s identity as a national patrimony lost to imperialist plunder was solidified in public discourse (Lee 2009). The loss of the Yuanming Yuan’s treasures became an essential part of China’s modern history of exploitation.
In the context of globalization, efforts to reclaim these treasures continue to symbolize China’s attempt to restore its cultural sovereignty and dignity in the international arena. The nationalist symbolism attached to these artifacts is clear. Their theft is seen as a deep wound to the Chinese nation, one that can only be healed once these items are returned to China (Bao 2009). This sentiment is reflected in the enormous prices Chinese bidders are willing to pay at global auctions. In 2007, at a Christie’s auction in Hong Kong, a Macao bidder named Ho Hung-sun paid HK$70 million for a horse-head sculpture, one of the twelve stolen zodiac animals that have gained public attention (CNTV 2010a). Three years later, Ho bought two more bronze pieces for HK$76 million and donated them to the Yuanming Yuan Museum (CNTV 2010b). Perhaps most famously, in a 2009 Christie’s auction in Paris, the rat and rabbit fountainheads were sold to Cai Mingchao, an adviser to China’s National Treasures Fund, for €15 million each. Cai, however, refused to pay, claiming his bid was purely “on patriotic grounds” (BBC 2009).
Over time, the Yuanming Yuan has become a powerful symbol of China’s awakening nationalism. Its destruction ignited a sense of national pride and a desire for self-strengthening, which spurred the growth of modern nationalist movements in China. In the 21st century, the legacy of the Yuanming Yuan and its historical memory continue to shape China’s cultural identity and its place in global discourse, making the Yuanming Yuan a central cultural symbol in the ongoing development of Chinese nationalism. The efforts to reclaim the looted treasures not only reflect a desire to return cultural property but also highlight China’s broader ambition to assert its cultural sovereignty and self-respect on the world stage.
Refenences
CNTV (China Network Television). “1.6 Million Chinese Relics Held by 47 Museums Worldwide.” CCTV.com, 20 Oct. 2010, http://english.cntv.cn.
CNTV (China Network Television). “Arduous Journey to Recovering Relics.” CCTV.com, 20 Oct. 2010, http://english.cntv.cn.
Fotopoulos, Annetta. “Understanding the Zodiac Saga in China: World Cultural Heritage, National Humiliation, and Evolving Narratives.” Modern China, vol. 41, no. 6, 2015, pp. 603–630. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/24575596. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.
Kraus, Richard Curt. “The Repatriation of Plundered Chinese Art.” The China Quarterly, no. 199, 2009, pp. 837–842. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27756522. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.
Lee, Haiyan. “The Ruins of Yuanmingyuan: Or, How to Enjoy a National Wound.” Modern China, vol. 35, no. 2, 2009, pp. 155–190. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/27746912. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.
Weatherley, Robert D., and Ariane Rosen. “Fanning the Flames of Popular Nationalism: The Debate in China over the Burning of the Old Summer Palace.” Asian Perspective, vol. 37, no. 1, 2013, pp. 53–76. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/42704818. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.
Identity Hunters 