Cover Image: OpenAI. Image depicting nationalism and social media as a tool of manipulation. AI-generated image. March 29, 2025. Created via ChatGPT (OpenAI).
Written by Gianella Pena Barbery
Nationalism, an ideology rooted in identity and further applied in political movements, has consistently relied on effective communication to gain support and shape history. Historically, nationalist leaders used traditional tools such as speeches, posters, and pamphlets to spread their ideologies.(1)(2) However, as the 21st century unfolds, the widespread use of social media has fundamentally transformed how nationalism is expressed and consumed.(3) This shift brings with it enhancing the potential or manipulation, as discussed in David Campbell’s The Art of Manipulation, where he breaks down the subtle yet powerful methods of influencing public opinion.
The Historical Foundation of Manipulation
In the early 20th century, nationalist movements capitalised on the power of mass communication. Leaders like Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini mastered the art of delivering impassioned speeches that were later immortalised in propaganda materials.(2)(4) These methods relied on repetition, emotional appeal, and the control of available media tounify populations around their causes. Manipulation in this era was highly effective, but also obvious, because the medium and the message were so explicitly intertwined. Propaganda relied on clear, one-directional channels, leaving little space for alternative interpretations or dissent.(2)
As Campbell explains, manipulation establishes a strong connection on shifting reality to fit a desired narrative. By controlling the method and flow of information, nationalist leaders could present themselves as “saviours” while portraying external groups or ideologies as existential threats.(5) The audience, limited by access to diverse perspectives, became susceptible to this one-dimensional storytelling. However, if restricted media facilitated nationalism in the past, how does modern mass media, which provides broader access to information, still allow nationalist narratives to flourish? The answer lies in the creation of digital echo chambers.(6)
Social Media: A New Battlefield
Fast forward to the 21st century, where social media has replaced posters and pamphlets as the dominant medium of communication. Platforms such as Twitter, Facebook, Instagram, and TikTok allow leaders to reach millions instantly, bypassing traditional gatekeepers such as journalists or editors. This democratisation of communication might seem to work effectively to demagogue leaders, and it also opens the door to sophisticated manipulation tactics that are harder to detect.(6)
Modern nationalist leaders, such as Enrique Tarrio – leader of the Proud Boys, harness algorithms and data analytics to tailor their messages to specific audiences.(7) Data analytics enable leaders to locate and engage their target demographic, while algorithms reinforce pre-existing biases by repeatedly exposing users to content that aligns with their beliefs, reinforcing ideological silos and deepening “echo chambers”.(7) This micro-targeting ensures that individuals see content aligned with their existing beliefs, reinforcing “echo chambers”. Unlike the static propaganda of the past, social media content is dynamic, and interactive: A tweet or video can be shared, liked, or commented on, creating the ´illusion´ of organic support while amplifying the message’s reach. This ´illusion´ is often manufactured through bots and coordinated digital campaigns, which manipulate engagement metrics to push certain narratives into mainstream visibility.(8)
Furthermore, the speed of information dissemination on social media leaves little time for critical analysis. Viral content, whether factual or not, can shape public opinion before fact-checkers or opposing voices have the chance to intervene.(9) While false narratives have historically played a role in nationalism – such as antisemitic conspiracy theories used by the Nazi regime – the accelerated pace of digital media makes misinformation harder to counteract.(9) In this context, manipulation becomes more subtle and pervasive. Leaders no longer need to control all media; they only need to dominate the platforms where their target audience resides.(6)
One of the most effective tools in the manipulation field is the appeal to emotion. Nationalism thrives on feelings of pride, fear, and belonging, which are emotions that are easily amplified in the digital age.(6) Unlike previous forms of media, social media enhances this effect through real time interaction, algorithmic amplification, and user-generated content. A carefully crafted video or even a meme can evoke outrage or solidarity in seconds, bypassing rational thought by leveraging virality and personalised engagement. The ease of content creation, combined with algorithmic prioritisation of emotionally charged material, ensures that these reactions spread rapidly, reinforcing existing beliefs and fostering a collective identity.(7) This enhanced ability for curation and influence in modern media heightens the abilities of creators to provoke emotional reactions, feeding into the passion requisite for nationalist sentiment.
Campbell argues that manipulation often involves simplifying complex realities into unchallenging fantasies. On social media, this reductionism is even more pronounced. A 280-character tweet or a 60-second video cannot capture the nuances of political, historical, or social issues. Instead, they present binary choices: us versus them, right versus wrong. This black and white framing feeds into the simplification inherent in nationalist rhetoric.(5)
Why Do We Fail to Notice? How Do We Combat It?
One of the most alarming aspects of modern manipulation is its subtlety. Social media users might not recognise a post as manipulative because it appears as just another piece of content among countless others.(6)
Overall, the participatory nature of social media further complicates detection. Users who share or comment on nationalist content may do so without fully understanding its implications, unknowingly becoming part of the manipulation cycle. This decentralisation of propaganda blurs the line between creator and consumer, making manipulation both widespread and insidious.
Bibliography:
- Smith, Anthony D. National Identity. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1991.
- Herf, Jeffrey. The Jewish Enemy: Nazi Propaganda During World War II and the Holocaust. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2006.
- Mihelj, Sabina, and Cristian Jiménez-Martínez. “Digital Nationalism: Understanding the Role of Digital Media in the Rise of ‘New’ Nationalism.” Nations and Nationalism 27, no. 2 (2021): 331–346. https://doi.org/10.1111/nana.12683.
- Welch, David. Propaganda: Power and Persuasion. London: British Library Publishing, 2013.
- Campbell, David. The Art of Manipulation. New York: Blackstone Publishing, 2001.
- Fuchs, Christian. Nationalism on the Internet: Critical Theory and Ideology in the Age of Social Media and Fake News. London: Routledge, 2019.
- Tucker, Joshua A., Andrew Guess, Pablo Barberá, Cristian Vaccari, Alexandra Siegel, Sergey Sanovich, Denis Stukal, and Brendan Nyhan. “Social Media, Political Polarization, and Political Disinformation: A Review of the Scientific Literature.” Political Science Quarterly 133, no. 4 (2018): 655–688.
- Aral, Sinan, and David Eckles. “Protecting Elections from Social Media Manipulation.” Science 365, no. 6456 (2019): 858–861. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaw8243.
- Starbird, Kate. “Examining the Alternative Media Ecosystem Through the Production of Alternative Narratives of Mass Shooting Events on Twitter.” Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media11, no. 1 (2017): 230–239.
Identity Hunters 